“It’s not wise to violate the rules until you know how to observe them.” - T.S.Eliot
Common Grammar and Punctuation Errors
1. Comma splice/ Run-on Sentences:
This error results from joining two independent clauses, without using a conjunction, or joining two complete sentences together using only a comma:
· “The coffee was fresh, I had a cup.” Comma Splice
· “The coffee was fresh. I had a cup.” Correct
· “The coffee was fresh, and I had a cup.” Correct
· “The coffee was fresh; I had a cup.” Correct
2. Fragments/Incomplete Sentences:
These are independent or subordinate clauses that do not have a subject or verb. Such as this sentence. (No subject)
· Slipping down the muddy bank and plopping into the river. Fragment
3. Shifts in Subject-Verb, Pronoun-Antecedent and Person Agreement:
Also called “singular-plural disagreements”, these occur when you alter the singular to the plural part-way through a sentence:
· The most popular breed of dogs in the US are the Labrador.
· One of the boats are missing their oars.
· We study history because you can apply the skills elsewhere.
4. Pronoun case: subject or object?
· My brother and me went to the store.
5. Parallel sentence structure:
· In my hometown people pass the time riding horses, playing cricket and at chess games.
6. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers:
These occur when your phrases modify the wrong noun or verb in a sentence.
· “I saw the Eiffel Tower, walking through Paris.” Misplaced Modifier
Was the Eiffel Tower walking through Paris or were you?
· “While walking through Paris, I saw the Eiffel Tower.” Correct
· If well written, you should do well on the essay.” Misplaced Modifier
This suggests that you (the pronoun) need to be well written, not the essay (the noun).
· You will do well on the essay if it is well written.
7. Frequently confused words:
· My three year old sister reads already. She is all ready to begin school.
· Mark’s giggle affected the teacher. The effect of the pinch was a sore leg.
8. Colloquialisms, clichés and informal/incorrect language:
· World War I was horrible.
· The kid in the novel could of been the hero.
· Europe was going to Hell in a basket.
9. Sentences ending with prepositions:
For example: in, at, on, to, with. These should never be used to end sentences. Usually, the sentence will read correctly if you drop the preposition.
· What time are you coming home at? Incorrect
· What time are you coming home. Correct
10. Misusing the apostrophe:
Apostrophes are used only to indicate possessives, not for pronouns that refer to a noun.
· the man’s car
· girls’ hockey team (more than one girl, so apostrophe comes after “s”)
· women’s history
The same rule applies to names ending in “s”:
· Dickens’s writings
· Yates’s poetry
Finally, do not use apostrophes to form plurals:
· The Smiths live here. (not Smith’s)
· Hamburger buns (not hamburger bun’s)
1. Comma splice/ Run-on Sentences:
This error results from joining two independent clauses, without using a conjunction, or joining two complete sentences together using only a comma:
· “The coffee was fresh, I had a cup.” Comma Splice
· “The coffee was fresh. I had a cup.” Correct
· “The coffee was fresh, and I had a cup.” Correct
· “The coffee was fresh; I had a cup.” Correct
2. Fragments/Incomplete Sentences:
These are independent or subordinate clauses that do not have a subject or verb. Such as this sentence. (No subject)
· Slipping down the muddy bank and plopping into the river. Fragment
3. Shifts in Subject-Verb, Pronoun-Antecedent and Person Agreement:
Also called “singular-plural disagreements”, these occur when you alter the singular to the plural part-way through a sentence:
· The most popular breed of dogs in the US are the Labrador.
· One of the boats are missing their oars.
· We study history because you can apply the skills elsewhere.
4. Pronoun case: subject or object?
· My brother and me went to the store.
5. Parallel sentence structure:
· In my hometown people pass the time riding horses, playing cricket and at chess games.
6. Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers:
These occur when your phrases modify the wrong noun or verb in a sentence.
· “I saw the Eiffel Tower, walking through Paris.” Misplaced Modifier
Was the Eiffel Tower walking through Paris or were you?
· “While walking through Paris, I saw the Eiffel Tower.” Correct
· If well written, you should do well on the essay.” Misplaced Modifier
This suggests that you (the pronoun) need to be well written, not the essay (the noun).
· You will do well on the essay if it is well written.
7. Frequently confused words:
· My three year old sister reads already. She is all ready to begin school.
· Mark’s giggle affected the teacher. The effect of the pinch was a sore leg.
8. Colloquialisms, clichés and informal/incorrect language:
· World War I was horrible.
· The kid in the novel could of been the hero.
· Europe was going to Hell in a basket.
9. Sentences ending with prepositions:
For example: in, at, on, to, with. These should never be used to end sentences. Usually, the sentence will read correctly if you drop the preposition.
· What time are you coming home at? Incorrect
· What time are you coming home. Correct
10. Misusing the apostrophe:
Apostrophes are used only to indicate possessives, not for pronouns that refer to a noun.
· the man’s car
· girls’ hockey team (more than one girl, so apostrophe comes after “s”)
· women’s history
The same rule applies to names ending in “s”:
· Dickens’s writings
· Yates’s poetry
Finally, do not use apostrophes to form plurals:
· The Smiths live here. (not Smith’s)
· Hamburger buns (not hamburger bun’s)
The very best advice you can get on Grammar and Sentence Structure is available from the Purdue University Online Writing Lab:
Included below are some essential pieces of information on what makes correct writing from Purdue OWL: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying "I feel badly" would be like saying you play football badly. "I feel badly" would mean that you are unable to feel, as though your hands were numb. Here are some other examples:
"The dog smells badly." Here, badly means that the dog does not do a good job of smelling.
"The dog smells bad." Here, "bad" means that dog needs a bath.
Agree in number
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.) Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
Agree in person
If you are writing in the "first person" (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.
· Subjective case: pronouns used as subjects
· Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions
· Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership
I
me
my (mine)
you
you
your (yours)
he, she, it
him, her, it
his, her (hers), it (its)
we
us
our (ours)
they
them
their (theirs)
who
whom
whose
The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.
Some problems of case: 'Him" or "me" ?
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
Not: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
Not: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
LIE versus LAY
Lie vs. Lay usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)
I lied to my mother.
I have lied under oath.
lie, lying (to recline)
I lay on the bed because I was tired.
He has lain in the grass.
lay, laying (to put, place)
I laid the baby in her cradle.
We have laid the dishes on the table.
Example sentences:
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
SIT versus SET
Sit vs. Set usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
sit (to be seated or come to resting position)
I sat in my favorite chair.
You have sat there for three hours.
set (to put or place)
I set my glass on the table.
She has set her books on my desk again.
Example sentences:
Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.
RISE versus RAISE
Rise vs. Raise usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
rise (steady or customary upward movement)
The balloon rose into the air.
He has risen to a position of power.
raise (to cause to rise)
They raised their hands because they knew the answer.
I have raised the curtain many times.
Example sentences:
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
The following sentence has an incorrect usage:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.
More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:
Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
A Little Help with Capitals
This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.
Use capital letters in the following ways:
The first words of a sentence
When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.
The pronoun "I"
The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?
The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus
Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.
Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
fall
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
The Fall 1999 semester
The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
Costa Rica
Spanish
French
English
The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese
Periods and events (but not century numbers)
Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century
Trademarks
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word
Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)
Freudian
NBC
pasteurize
UN
french fries
italics
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike
Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.
Accept, Except
· accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree:
He accepted their praise graciously.
· except = preposition meaning all but, other than:
Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
We are currently updating these resources, but for more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect
· affect = verb meaning to influence:
Will lack of sleep affect your game?
· effect = noun meaning result or consequence:
Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
· effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish:
Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.
We are currently updating these resources, but for more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice
· advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel:
I advise you to be cautious.
· advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done:
I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience
· conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
· conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.
Idea, Ideal
· idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
· ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
· ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Jennifer was an ideal student.
Its, It's
· its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the
pronoun it):
The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
· it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase):
It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Lead, Led
· lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element:
The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
· led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct:
The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
Than, Then
Than
used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.
used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then
a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.
Their, There, They're
· Their = possessive pronoun:
They got their books.
· There = that place:
My house is over there.
(This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
· They're = contraction for they are:
They're making dinner.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
To, Too, Two
· To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb:
They went to the lake to swim.
· Too = very, also:
I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
· Two = the number 2:
Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")
We're, Where, Were
· We're = contraction for we are:
We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
· Where = location:
Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
· Were = a past tense form of the verb be:
They were walking side by side.
Your, You're
· Your = possessive pronoun:
Your shoes are untied.
· You're = contraction for you are:
You're walking around with your shoes untied.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
I/E Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, neither, science, species, sufficient
Please see our four interactive exercises to practice these rules.
-ible, -able Rule
-ible
-able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible.
aud + ible = audible
Examples:
accept + able = acceptable
Examples:
excuse - e+ able = excusable
Examples:
· contemptible
· digestible
· flexible
· responsible
· irritable
· inevitable
Try some exercises for spelling -ible and -able correctly.
Exercise : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 1
In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. Read the paragraph, locate the misspelled words and write the correct spellings in the space provided below the paragraph.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable position."
Write the correct spellings below:
Answer : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 1 In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. The misspelled words are listed below the paragraph. Correct answers are in bold and incorrect answers are in italics.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable position."
The correct spellings are listed below.
eligible
personable
fashionable
remarkable
horrible
inedible
undigestible
possible
contemptible
Exercise : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 2
In the following sentences, the final four letters are omitted from each -ible or -able word. Complete each word with the appropriate ending.
1. Last night's movie about the invis____ man was so incred____ that it was laugh____.
2. My irrespons____ little brother is usually kept away from anything break____.
3. Are these new clothes really comfort____, or do people only wear them because they are fashion____?
4. I think I would be less irrit____ if my professors were more flex____.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permiss____.
6. It's always valu____ to have a friend who is depend____.
7. My employer said that it isn't suit____ to have a secretary whose handwriting is illeg____.
Answer : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 2
In the following sentences, the appropriate endings are included here. Correct answers are in bold and incorrect answers are in italics.
1. Last night's movie about the invisible man was so incredible that it was laughable.
2. My irresponsible little brother is usually kept away from anything breakable.
3. Are these new clothes really comfortable, or do people only wear them because they are fashionable?
4. I think I would be less irritable if my professors were more flexible.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permissible.
6. It's always valuable to have a friend who is dependable.
7. My employer said that it isn't suitable to have a secretary whose handwriting is illegible.
Brief Overview of Punctuation
When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence
Comma
Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas.
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.
Semicolon
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.
For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel.
Colon
Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6
Parenthesis
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.
Italics
Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.
Punctuation in Types of Sentences
Learning rules for how and when to punctuate a sentence can be difficult, especially when you consider that different types of sentences call for different types of punctuation. This handout should help to clarify not only the types of sentences, but also what punctuation to use in what situation.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence
Simple: composed of 1 independent clause.
No standard punctuation.
Compound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.
Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses.
Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma.
Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered travel around town.
Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent clauses.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
When it is filtered, water is cleaner, and it tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water: filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; all things considered, it is better for you.
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see our handouts on those subjects.
Pattern One: Simple sentence
This pattern is an example of a simple sentence:
Independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction:
Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.
Pattern Five: Complex Sentence
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.
Dependent marker dependent clause[ , ] Independent clause[ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.
Pattern Six: Complex Sentence
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.
Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.
Pattern Seven
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded non-essential clause or phrase
First part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential clause or phrase, rest of the independent clause [ . ]
A non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the non-essential clause or phrase gives additional information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Pattern Eight
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence.
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.
Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences
Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
_________________________, and _________________________.
He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.
2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).
__________________________;_____________________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.
or
__________________________; however,____________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.
So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.
Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.
Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.
Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.
CConquering the Comma Powerpoint Presentation Media File: Conquering the Comma Powerpoint Presentation
This resource is enhanced by a PowerPoint file. Download the free Microsoft PowerPoint Viewer
This presentation is designed to acquaint you or your students with the rules of comma usage, including:
· placement in compound sentences
· placement after introductory elements
· placement with dependent phrases and clauses
· placement around nonessential elements
· placement in a series
· placement with adjectives
This presentation will also cover methods for avoiding a common comma error—the comma splice. The thirty-one slide presentation included here is designed to aid the facilitator in an interactive presentation of the elements of comma usage. This presentation is ideal for the beginning of a composition course, the assignment of a writing project, or as a refresher presentation for grammar usage.
correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.
Commas: Quick Rules
The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be broken.
The following is a short guide to get you started using commas. This resource also includes sections with more detailed rules and examples.
Quick Guide to Commas
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
Extended Rules for Using Commas
Comma Use
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:
· If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
· Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
· If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
· Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
· Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.
Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
Quotation Mark Exercise and Answers
Summary: A rundown of the general rules of when and where to use quotation marks.
Contributors:Sean M. Conrey, Mark Pepper, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-05-10 03:57:50
Quotation Mark Exercise
In the following sentences put in quotation marks wherever they are needed, and underline words where italics are needed.
Mary is trying hard in school this semester, her father said.
No, the taxi driver said curtly, I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes.
I believe, Jack remarked, that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book entitled Guide to Europe.
My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
She asked, Is Time a magazine you read regularly?
Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, A Good Man Is Hard to Find.
When did Roosevelt say, We have nothing to fear but fear itself?
It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
Yesterday, John said, This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East; however, he did not return it.
Can you believe, Dot asked me, that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?
A Perfect Day for Bananafish is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
Certainly, Mr. Martin said, I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand.
Quotation Mark Exercise Answers
"Mary is trying hard in school this semester," her father said.
"No," the taxi driver said curtly, "I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes."
"I believe," Jack remarked, "that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book entitled Guide to Europe."
My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
She asked, "Is Time a magazine you read regularly?"
Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, "A Good Man Is Hard to Find."
When did Roosevelt say, "We have nothing to fear but fear itself"?
It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
Yesterday, John said, "This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East"; however, he did not return it.
"Can you believe," Dot asked me, "that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?"
"A Perfect Day for Bananafish" is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
"Certainly," Mr. Martin said, "I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand."
Additional Punctuation Rules when Using Quotation Marks
Summary: A rundown of the general rules of when and where to use quotation marks.
Contributors:Sean M. Conrey, Mark Pepper, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-11-16 01:54:33
Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependent clause.
The detective said, "I am sure who performed the murder."
As D.H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another."
Put commas and periods within quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows.
He said, "I may forget your name, but I never forget a face."
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (24).
Place colons and semicolons outside closed quotation marks.
Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.
Place a question mark or exclamation point within closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the quotation itself. Place the punctuation outside the closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the whole sentence.
Phillip asked, "Do you need this book?"
Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences
Summary: This resource offers a number of pages about comma use.
Contributors:Dana Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-04-18 12:44:51
For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel.
A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.
Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.
Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.
For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout on Sentence Punctuation Patterns.
Included below are some essential pieces of information on what makes correct writing from Purdue OWL: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying "I feel badly" would be like saying you play football badly. "I feel badly" would mean that you are unable to feel, as though your hands were numb. Here are some other examples:
"The dog smells badly." Here, badly means that the dog does not do a good job of smelling.
"The dog smells bad." Here, "bad" means that dog needs a bath.
Agree in number
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
(NOT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.) Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
Agree in person
If you are writing in the "first person" (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.
· Subjective case: pronouns used as subjects
· Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions
· Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership
I
me
my (mine)
you
you
your (yours)
he, she, it
him, her, it
his, her (hers), it (its)
we
us
our (ours)
they
them
their (theirs)
who
whom
whose
The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.
Some problems of case: 'Him" or "me" ?
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
Not: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
Not: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
LIE versus LAY
Lie vs. Lay usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)
I lied to my mother.
I have lied under oath.
lie, lying (to recline)
I lay on the bed because I was tired.
He has lain in the grass.
lay, laying (to put, place)
I laid the baby in her cradle.
We have laid the dishes on the table.
Example sentences:
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
SIT versus SET
Sit vs. Set usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
sit (to be seated or come to resting position)
I sat in my favorite chair.
You have sat there for three hours.
set (to put or place)
I set my glass on the table.
She has set her books on my desk again.
Example sentences:
Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.
RISE versus RAISE
Rise vs. Raise usage
Present
Past
Past Participle
rise (steady or customary upward movement)
The balloon rose into the air.
He has risen to a position of power.
raise (to cause to rise)
They raised their hands because they knew the answer.
I have raised the curtain many times.
Example sentences:
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
The following sentence has an incorrect usage:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.
More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:
Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
A Little Help with Capitals
This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.
Use capital letters in the following ways:
The first words of a sentence
When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.
The pronoun "I"
The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?
The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus
Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.
Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
fall
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
The Fall 1999 semester
The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
Costa Rica
Spanish
French
English
The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese
Periods and events (but not century numbers)
Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century
Trademarks
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word
Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)
Freudian
NBC
pasteurize
UN
french fries
italics
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike
Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.
Accept, Except
· accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree:
He accepted their praise graciously.
· except = preposition meaning all but, other than:
Everyone went to the game except Alyson.
We are currently updating these resources, but for more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Affect, Effect
· affect = verb meaning to influence:
Will lack of sleep affect your game?
· effect = noun meaning result or consequence:
Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
· effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish:
Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.
We are currently updating these resources, but for more information on these words, plus exercises, see our document on accept/except and affect/effect.
Advise, Advice
· advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel:
I advise you to be cautious.
· advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done:
I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.
Conscious, Conscience
· conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
· conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.
Idea, Ideal
· idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
· ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
· ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Jennifer was an ideal student.
Its, It's
· its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the
pronoun it):
The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.
· it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase):
It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
Lead, Led
· lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element:
The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
· led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct:
The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
Than, Then
Than
used in comparison statements: He is richer than I.
used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat.
used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then
a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then.
next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play.
suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.
Their, There, They're
· Their = possessive pronoun:
They got their books.
· There = that place:
My house is over there.
(This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
· They're = contraction for they are:
They're making dinner.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
To, Too, Two
· To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb:
They went to the lake to swim.
· Too = very, also:
I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.
· Two = the number 2:
Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")
We're, Where, Were
· We're = contraction for we are:
We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
· Where = location:
Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)
· Were = a past tense form of the verb be:
They were walking side by side.
Your, You're
· Your = possessive pronoun:
Your shoes are untied.
· You're = contraction for you are:
You're walking around with your shoes untied.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)
I/E Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, neither, science, species, sufficient
Please see our four interactive exercises to practice these rules.
-ible, -able Rule
-ible
-able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible.
aud + ible = audible
Examples:
- visible
- horrible
- terrible
- possible
- edible
- eligible
- incredible
- permissible
accept + able = acceptable
Examples:
- fashionable
- laughable
- suitable
- dependable
- comfortable
excuse - e+ able = excusable
Examples:
- advisable
- desirable
- valuable
- debatable
· contemptible
· digestible
· flexible
· responsible
· irritable
· inevitable
Try some exercises for spelling -ible and -able correctly.
Exercise : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 1
In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. Read the paragraph, locate the misspelled words and write the correct spellings in the space provided below the paragraph.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable position."
Write the correct spellings below:
Answer : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 1 In the following paragraph there are fourteen words ending with -ible or -able, some of which are misspelled. The misspelled words are listed below the paragraph. Correct answers are in bold and incorrect answers are in italics.
Most people thought that Michael, an eligable bachelor, was an adorable, personible man. Mattie, however, found him detestable. Some time ago, Michael promised to take Mattie to a fashionible restaurant for a remarkible dinner. As horrable as it sounds, Michael took Mattie to the local McDonald's. Most of the food there was either inedable or undigestable. Mattie was as irritable as possable when she told her roommates about her terrible date. "Whoever finally marries that contemptable Michael," Mattie said, "is certainly not going to be in an enviable position."
The correct spellings are listed below.
eligible
personable
fashionable
remarkable
horrible
inedible
undigestible
possible
contemptible
Exercise : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 2
In the following sentences, the final four letters are omitted from each -ible or -able word. Complete each word with the appropriate ending.
1. Last night's movie about the invis____ man was so incred____ that it was laugh____.
2. My irrespons____ little brother is usually kept away from anything break____.
3. Are these new clothes really comfort____, or do people only wear them because they are fashion____?
4. I think I would be less irrit____ if my professors were more flex____.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permiss____.
6. It's always valu____ to have a friend who is depend____.
7. My employer said that it isn't suit____ to have a secretary whose handwriting is illeg____.
Answer : -ible and -able Spelling Exercise 2
In the following sentences, the appropriate endings are included here. Correct answers are in bold and incorrect answers are in italics.
1. Last night's movie about the invisible man was so incredible that it was laughable.
2. My irresponsible little brother is usually kept away from anything breakable.
3. Are these new clothes really comfortable, or do people only wear them because they are fashionable?
4. I think I would be less irritable if my professors were more flexible.
5. I don't think voting twice in national elections is permissible.
6. It's always valuable to have a friend who is dependable.
7. My employer said that it isn't suitable to have a secretary whose handwriting is illegible.
Brief Overview of Punctuation
When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence
Comma
Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas.
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.
Semicolon
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.
For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel.
Colon
Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6
Parenthesis
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.
Italics
Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.
Punctuation in Types of Sentences
Learning rules for how and when to punctuate a sentence can be difficult, especially when you consider that different types of sentences call for different types of punctuation. This handout should help to clarify not only the types of sentences, but also what punctuation to use in what situation.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence
Simple: composed of 1 independent clause.
No standard punctuation.
Compound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.
Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses.
Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma.
Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered travel around town.
Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent clauses.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
When it is filtered, water is cleaner, and it tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water: filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; all things considered, it is better for you.
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
To punctuate a sentence, you can use and combine some of these patterns. For more information on independent and dependent clauses plus independent and dependent markers, see our handouts on those subjects.
Pattern One: Simple sentence
This pattern is an example of a simple sentence:
Independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction:
Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.
Pattern Five: Complex Sentence
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.
Dependent marker dependent clause[ , ] Independent clause[ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.
Pattern Six: Complex Sentence
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.
Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.
Pattern Seven
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded non-essential clause or phrase
First part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential clause or phrase, rest of the independent clause [ . ]
A non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the non-essential clause or phrase gives additional information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.
Pattern Eight
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence.
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.
Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences
Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
_________________________, and _________________________.
He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.
2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).
__________________________;_____________________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; she preferred to read instead.
or
__________________________; however,____________________.
He often watched TV when there were only reruns; however, she preferred to read instead.
So, run-ons and fused sentences are terms describing two independent clauses which are joined together with no connecting word or punctuation to separate the clauses.
Incorrect: They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.
Correct: They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.
Incorrect: I didn't know which job I wanted I was too confused to decide.
CConquering the Comma Powerpoint Presentation Media File: Conquering the Comma Powerpoint Presentation
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This presentation is designed to acquaint you or your students with the rules of comma usage, including:
· placement in compound sentences
· placement after introductory elements
· placement with dependent phrases and clauses
· placement around nonessential elements
· placement in a series
· placement with adjectives
This presentation will also cover methods for avoiding a common comma error—the comma splice. The thirty-one slide presentation included here is designed to aid the facilitator in an interactive presentation of the elements of comma usage. This presentation is ideal for the beginning of a composition course, the assignment of a writing project, or as a refresher presentation for grammar usage.
correct: I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.
Commas: Quick Rules
The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be broken.
The following is a short guide to get you started using commas. This resource also includes sections with more detailed rules and examples.
Quick Guide to Commas
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
Extended Rules for Using Commas
Comma Use
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:
· If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
· Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
· If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
· Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
· Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.
Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
Quotation Mark Exercise and Answers
Summary: A rundown of the general rules of when and where to use quotation marks.
Contributors:Sean M. Conrey, Mark Pepper, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-05-10 03:57:50
Quotation Mark Exercise
In the following sentences put in quotation marks wherever they are needed, and underline words where italics are needed.
Mary is trying hard in school this semester, her father said.
No, the taxi driver said curtly, I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes.
I believe, Jack remarked, that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book entitled Guide to Europe.
My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
She asked, Is Time a magazine you read regularly?
Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, A Good Man Is Hard to Find.
When did Roosevelt say, We have nothing to fear but fear itself?
It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
Yesterday, John said, This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East; however, he did not return it.
Can you believe, Dot asked me, that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?
A Perfect Day for Bananafish is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
Certainly, Mr. Martin said, I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand.
Quotation Mark Exercise Answers
"Mary is trying hard in school this semester," her father said.
"No," the taxi driver said curtly, "I cannot get you to the airport in fifteen minutes."
"I believe," Jack remarked, "that the best time of year to visit Europe is in the spring. At least that's what I read in a book entitled Guide to Europe."
My French professor told me that my accent is abominable.
She asked, "Is Time a magazine you read regularly?"
Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, "A Good Man Is Hard to Find."
When did Roosevelt say, "We have nothing to fear but fear itself"?
It seems to me that hip and cool are words that are going out of style.
Yesterday, John said, "This afternoon I'll bring back your book Conflict in the Middle East"; however, he did not return it.
"Can you believe," Dot asked me, "that it has been almost five years since we've seen each other?"
"A Perfect Day for Bananafish" is, I believe, J. D. Salinger's best short story.
"Certainly," Mr. Martin said, "I shall explain the whole situation to him. I know that he will understand."
Additional Punctuation Rules when Using Quotation Marks
Summary: A rundown of the general rules of when and where to use quotation marks.
Contributors:Sean M. Conrey, Mark Pepper, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-11-16 01:54:33
Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory phrase, or a dependent clause.
The detective said, "I am sure who performed the murder."
As D.H. Nachas explains, "The gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another."
Put commas and periods within quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows.
He said, "I may forget your name, but I never forget a face."
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (24).
Place colons and semicolons outside closed quotation marks.
Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists disagreed.
Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family support, personal commitment, and great coaching.
Place a question mark or exclamation point within closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the quotation itself. Place the punctuation outside the closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the whole sentence.
Phillip asked, "Do you need this book?"
Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences
Summary: This resource offers a number of pages about comma use.
Contributors:Dana Driscoll, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2011-04-18 12:44:51
For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel.
A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.
Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.
Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.
For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout on Sentence Punctuation Patterns.